December
1999
When one thinks of Medieval art,
perhaps the images that come to mind are paintings of religious figures with
their characteristic gold halos and sorrowful eyes. These images are certainly found in art during the Middle Ages,
but there are many more different kinds of images that can also be found in
this time period. Artists used numerous
different types of media and surfaces for the expression of ideas, beliefs, and
beauty through art. The artists
themselves had various influences that prompted them to create the work they
did, but the strongest influence without a doubt came from the church. The topic of Medieval art is certainly a
broad one, and most definitely an interesting and fascinating subject.
In order to clear up some confusion,
the start and end date of the Middle Ages must be discussed. Some may argue that 313 A.D. is the start of
the Middle Ages because it is the point in time that Christianity was recognized
as a state religion through the Edict of Milan.[1] Others say that it is 476 A.D. because that
date is the point that marks the changing of the classical period to the
medieval period. Yet another
possibility is 800 A.D. because that is the time at which Charlemagne founded
the first Germanic Empire.[2] However, most sources seem to agree on the
earlier date of 313 A.D. and even somewhat earlier than that as the start of
the Middle Ages. As for an ending date,
1350 seems sufficient since the Renaissance begins at about that time.[3] The time period that will be used for this
paper, based on the information at hand, is 300 A.D. to 1350 A.D.
Art can be found in many different
forms in Medieval society. The most
widely recognized form is that of paintings, but art can also be found in other
places including grave slabs and tombs, illuminated texts, and tapestries. Since the term art encompasses a rather
large realm of items, only those mentioned above will be discussed in this
paper.
Paintings, what most people think of
when the word art is mentioned, are certainly quite a common form of art during
the Medieval ages. They are best
discussed when split into two categories, sacred Christian art and secular,
non-Christian art. Since the building
of the first Catholic churches in Milan in 313 A.D., many religious paintings
have been produced, but secular paintings of daily life, beauty, or pagan
themes have also existed.[4]
Based on the Bible, the lives of
saints, and many other Christian themes, religious paintings of this time
period showed the beliefs of the church and the painter. Incipient Christian art is intriguing since
it sprang from pagan art. Early images
of Christ are sometimes modeled after the pagan figures of Apollo or Helios
among others.<*4> Many artists,
working for both pagan and Christian clients, found it difficult to create an
image of Christ on their own with no description. Thus, many artists drew from the classical renderings of gods to
show Christ as having attributes that only pagan gods had possessed.[5] Other examples of this use of pagan and
classical art as applied to Christian themes can be found throughout early
Medieval art.[6] This set the precedent for the depiction of
religious figures in later Christian paintings.[7]
After such precedents had been set,
books and manuals became available to artists concerning technique and exactly
how to depict certain religious figures.[8] One such set of instructions tells the
artist that, “Matthew has gray hair and a beard ... Andrew has a gray beard and
the sign of the cross in his hair ... Thaddeus is young and has black hair and
a round tonsure.”[9]
Artists were charged to not only
please the eye with their work, but to also light the soul on fire with the
word of God.[10] They worked in catacombs, painting walls and
archways with images of Christ and His twelve Apostles as well as other sacred
images.[11] Many painted the insides of churches,
filling them with holy images.[12] Saints were quite popular to paint as well,
depicting them at the moment of martyrdom, showing the good deeds of the saint,
or even a simple portrait displaying the attributes of that saint and his or
her particular function.[13] Artists spent time using their skills to
produce new paintings as well as making copies of originals for further
distribution.[14]
Secular paintings still had a
purpose, although that purpose was not considered to be quite as important as
the purpose of the Christian counterpart.
Self-portraits and portraits fall into the category of secular paintings
being that the purpose of such a painting is to show the countenance of the
sitter, or to show the skill of the artist.[15] Showing artistic skill was perfectly admissible,
but being creative was not so acceptable.
The word creative implied that one was creating
something and was therefore trying to be like God, The Creator.[16] Approval for artwork was formally given at
Nicea in 787 during the seventh ecumenical council.[17] The church essentially gave up their old,
early belief that any kind of imagery was rejected because it was a possible
source of idolatry and a symbol of worldly luxury.[18]
The Western Church of Charlemagne did not have much
of a say in the deliberations of the council.
When word of the proceedings got back to Charlemagne, the Caroline books
were sent back as a reply, expressing outrage at the approval of art in the
church.[19] “How is it then, that Scripture is not
contradicted by painters, who frequently follow the vain fables of the
poets? They fashion sometimes events
which have actually happened, but also incredible inanities on other occasions.”[20] This quote, a part of the Caroline Books,
shows the common belief of the time; that artists who painted pagan scenes
could also paint holy scenes and keep the two separate. Another quote indicates that many thought
that the written word of the Bible cannot be accurately translated into visual
form and should be left as it is, “For which single word of the Lord and the
apostles can be represented by painters?”[21] The text goes on to state that although
painters have the ability to depict historical scenes, these things are “understood
by reason and expressed in words” just as well and cannot be expressed by
painters nearly as well.[22]
Painters, when painting portraits, would not only
paint self-portraits and traditional portraits of royalty, but would also paint
other artists at work. One such example
depicts a botanical illustrator examining a specimen as he prepares to paint
the subject on parchment.[23] Illuminators often put themselves inside
their work, including their portraits inside letters and designs around the
manuscripts they were illuminating.[24]
Illuminated texts can be considered
art of two different forms; literary art and visual art. The manuscripts that were copied were gems
on their own, but the illuminations that accompanied the texts also hold the interest
of many. Many times, the artist would
literally put himself into the work, adding his own self-portrait of sorts into
a manuscript that he was illuminating.
There are many of these illuminations, showing the artist with the tools
of the trade; inkhorns, knives, brushes, paint pots, and other items used by
the artist.[25] Illuminators would also place other artists
into their illuminations. For example,
one scene in a manuscript shows an artist painting a statue outside of a
church.[26] Other portraits that were found inside
manuscripts were those of the author of the text. This is found very commonly in the Gospels of the Bible.[27]
Illuminations showed up in various
different places, but most always were contained in a religious text of some
sort including psalms, prayer books, illustrated Bibles, and evangelistaries.[28] Illuminators eventually became extremely
skilled and added more and more detail, catching every trapping of a military
uniform and adding flora and fauna to the borders of pages.[29] Another area in which detail developed more
and more was that of tapestry.
Tapestries and woven items became
popular as the desire for decorative luxury increased.[30] Earlier woven items usually had only two
colors and lacked the detail that later creations had.[31] Perhaps the most famous of all tapestries
are the Bayeux tapestries. They were
created to commemorate William the Conqueror’s victory over Edward the
Confessor and King Harold.[32] These tapestries, according to legend,
depict over sixty different episodes from William’s invasion. The narrative detail shown in the tapestries
is seen in various scenes that depict men in battle with amazing attention to
the expressions on the men on their faces as well as through their body
language.[33] Tapestries in general were created more for
the purpose of storytelling versus the exhibition of religion.[34]
Art can be found even at the
grave. When someone of a wealthy or
well known family died, the funeral arrangements would most times include an
elaborate tomb, sarcophagus, or grave stone.
These would sometimes contain inscriptions, but would most always
contain some form of artwork. In the
case of grave stones, there are a myriad of typical carvings, ranging from
images of the Passion of Christ to crosses and even to heraldic shields.[35]
Any and every inscription or carving
was put on a grave stone for a reason.
They all made some kind of statement for their time whether it be
social, political, or religious.[36] As for the carvings, the cross is by far the
most common of all. The cross can come
in many different styles and have different heads and bases. Using a cross on a grave stone or grave slab
is a reference in most cases to the sacrifice of Christ for humankind, His
resurrection, and salvation.[37] It implies the aspiration for salvation of
the Christian inhumed beneath. However,
the use of certain bases and heads can change the connotation of the cross. For example, the stepped base signifies the
Crucifixion while the use of a head shaped like a fleur-de-lis adds the
connotation of purity through baptism.[38]
Another popular set of carvings used
on grave markers are those pertaining to the Passion of Christ. These symbols were used to show the personal
devotion of the deceased in their time.[39] Each individual symbol has its own meaning
in this case. The dice represent the
casting of lots for Christ’s clothes, the crown of thorns is the symbol for
Christ’s suffering, nails are shown because they were used to affix Christ to
the cross, pincers as the tool used to remove the nails from Christ’s hands and
feet, the sun represents the
Resurrection, and the moon, usually seen with the sun, symbolizes the power of
nature, and in some cases, the angel Gabriel.[40] These are only a few of the many symbols
that were included on grave slabs. In a
way, these symbols serve to inform the viewer of Memento Mori, or to “Remember Death.” The words, Memento Mori were often carved on the slabs along with
the use of symbols, indicating the strong influence that death held in the
Middle Ages.[41] Many times these same symbols of the Passion
of Christ as found on grave slabs could be found on heraldic shields.
The heraldic shield as carved on a
grave stone serves two important purposes.
One is to illustrate pride in one’s family and its lineage. The other is the use of the shield to make a
slab more convincing, making the grave slab a monument with a definitive
identity.[42] However, these shields appear more often on
tombs than on grave slabs.
Tombs became more popular toward the
end of the Middle Ages. Royalty would
commonly have a tomb made with a funeral effigy sculpted on it in relief form,
depicting the deceased as to show his or her character and inner life of the
soul.[43] The sculptures would usually be rather
elaborate, and showed a revival of the Roman art of portraiture.[44] The sides of the tombs would be decorated
with a variety of different scenes including religious scenes containing
Christian symbolism. Some tombs were
decorated with outright pagan themes, while others had pagan scenes that
translated into being Christian symbolism.
Such scenes include those containing shepherds and cupids frolicking in
a field.[45]
The influences on the artists came
from the world around them. The church
influenced artists much since paintings were commissioned for cathedrals,
catacombs, and altars as well as other such holy settings. However, the drive to produce classical, Romanesque
art during this time was also quite strong.
There exists a crossover between classical, pagan art forms and those
that are undeniably Christian.[46] This blurs the normally clear lines between
Christian and pagan art, as seen more so in sculpture than in any other art
form.
The church had a demand for large
amounts of artwork. Hundreds of square
yards of Roman catacombs were being decorated with paintings of sacred symbols
and figures.[47] Sometimes archways were painted, giving a
small decoration to a normally dull space, while in other places, full walls
were painted. As churches began being
built in abundance, artists were called to decorate the walls of the church and
of small chapels with scenes from the Bible, portraits of the saints, and other
religious symbols.[48]
Classical art was still quite
popular since most of the art that was produced during the Middle Ages borrowed
heavily on classical sources if not copying them directly. Such images as putti which are cherub-like winged
children, Triton, Venus, and other deities were found commonly on sarcophagi
alongside the typical Christian symbols of resurrection and salvation.[49] In the case of classical marriage scenes, in
which Juno or a cupid unite a couple, the pagan figure was replaced by the
image of Christ.[50] Illuminators also used this practice of
changing a pagan or classical function in art to fit Christianity. Since the portraits of classical writers and
philosophers were commonly included at the beginning of a book, it was only
logical that they put the portraits of the writers of Gospels in their own
writings as well.[51]
conclusion
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Batterberry, Michael. Art
of the Middle Ages. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,
1971.
Davis-Weyer, Caecilia. Early
Medieval Art: 300-1150. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
Inc.,
1971.
Egbert, Virginia Wylie. The
Mediaeval Artist at Work. New Jersey: Princeton
University
Press, 1967.
Kitzinger, Ernst. Early
Medieval Art, With Illustrations from the British Museum
Collection. Indiana: Indiana University Press,
1966.
Lethaby, W.R. Medieval
Art: From the Peace of the Church to the Eve of the
Renaissance, 312-1350. New York: Philosophical
Society Inc., 1950.
Maher, Denise. Medieval
Grave Slabs of County Tipperary, 1200-1600 A.D.
England: Biddles Ltd., 1997.
[1] Kitzinger, Ernst. Early Medieval Art, with Illustrations from the British Museum Collection. Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1966, p. 1.
[2] Ibid, p. 1.
[3] Lethaby, W. R. Medieval Art from the Peace of the Church to the Eve of the Renaissance, 312-1350. New York: Philosophical Society, Inc., 1950, p. 280.
[4] Egbert, Virginia Wylie. The Medieval Artist at Work. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1967, p. 24.
[5] Kitzinger, p. 4.
[6] Batterberry, Michael. Art of the Middle Ages. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1971, p. 10.
[7] Kitzinger, p. 5.
[8] Davis-Weyer, Caecilia. Early Medieval Art, 300-1150. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1971, p. 78.
[9] Ibid, pp. 78-79.
[10] Batterberry, p. 10.
[11] Ibid, p. 10.
[12] Ibid, p. 13.
[13] Ibid, p. 80.
[14] Egbert, p. 24.
[15] Ibid, p. 21.
[16] Ibid, p. 20.
[17] Davis-Weyer, p. 99.
[18] Kitzinger, p. 2.
[19] Davis-Weyer, p. 99.
[20] Ibid, p. 101.
[21] Ibid, p. 103.
[22] Ibid, p. 103.
[23] Egbert, p. 22.
[24] Ibid, p. 32.
[25] Ibid, p. 32.
[26] Ibid, p. 46.
[27] Kitzinger, p. 5.
[28] Batterberry, p. 115.
[29] Ibid, p. 117.
[30] Ibid, p. 117.
[31] Ibid, p. 48.
[32] Ibid, p. 91.
[33] Ibid, p. 91.
[34] Ibid, p. 91.
[35] Maher, Denise. Medieval Grave Slabs of County Tipperary, 1200-1600 A.D. England: Biddles Ltd., 1997, p. 28.
[36] Ibid, p. 48.
[37] Ibid, p. 28.
[38] Ibid, p. 28.
[39] Ibid, p. 33.
[40] Ibid, pp. 33-34.
[41] Ibid, p. 33.
[42] Ibid, p. 33.
[43] Batterberry, p. 122.
[44] Ibid, p. 123.
[45] Ibid, p. 14.
[46] Kitzinger, p. 3.
[47] Batterberry, p. 10.
[48] Ibid, p. 10.
[49] Kitzinger, p. 3.
[50] Ibid, p. 4.
[51] Ibid, p. 5.