Melissa Kitko 12/13/01 HIST 351

#3. William Dean Howells and Edith Wharton were friendly admirers of one another’s fiction. Both writers produced devastating critiques of their society, one focused on Boston and one on New York between 1885 and 1905. Which of these writers has given you the most meaningful glimpse of Gilded Age urban society and culture? Choose one novel and discuss two significant moments in it with close readings and historical analysis of the writer’s perspective.

Urban society and culture of the Gilded Age was critiqued by William Dean Howells in his book, The Rise of Silas Lapham. The Gilded Age, marked by a great disparity of wealth, was a result of the triumph of industrialism. Men were either extremely rich or extremely poor, and an increasing number of people were moving to cities which was added to by a steady stream of immigrants. Those who were newly rich sometimes got there by immoral or unethical means and were doomed to fall as Silas indeed did. As for the culture of the Gilded Age, the differences in new wealth and old wealth can be seen in the exchanges surrounding the dinner party with the Corey family.

Silas Lapham started out his business small, working closely with his wife who was heavily involved in the company. As time went on and Lapham’s mineral paint took off and became a popular item, Persis became less and less involved in the workings of the company. Persis laments the fact that she is no longer involved,

“She had not been near his place of business for nearly a year, and her heart smote her tenderly as she looked about her there, and thought of the early days when she knew as much about the paint as he did; she wished that those days were back again,” (Howells, p. 335).

This is one of many results of the booming industry in the United States during the Gilded Age. Businesses had moved out of the private sector, the domestic area that women could be involved in. Rather than being run as small family businesses, these new industrial corporations were alienating the producers from the product. There was less alienation with Silas’ factory since he kept involved in all happenings of the factory, but today, alienation between producer, worker, and end product is even more exaggerated as can be seen in an example like Nike. The sneakers are made in sweatshops by people who may never see the final product and most likely will not use it, and the consumer of the product does not know the process of how it was made or who actually made it. Persis is a victim of this alienation as she now knows little about what goes on in her husband’s factory and has not even visited his office in a year.

Just after an encounter with Mr. Rogers, the man who entered into business with Silas, Persis reminds Silas of his wrongs against Rogers, “you had him where he couldn’t help himself and then you wouldn’t show him any mercy,” (Howells, p. 47). Persis is troubled by the fact that she can no longer affect her husband and his business decisions, both moral and monetary, like she had been able to in the past. Silas does not want her involved with the business at all, and tells her, “If you’ll ‘tend to the house, I’ll manage my business without your help,” (Howells, p. 47). He makes it completely clear to Persis that he does not want her superior morality weighing on his conscience and affecting his business decisions.

However, despite Silas’ attempts to ignore Persis and his conscience, eventually he sees things her way and his business begins to fail. Rather than try to salvage it and take advantage of the opportunities set before him, he decides to let it go and own up to his original fault of cheating Mr. Rogers. This idea of the morally corrupt businessman is a significant part of the Gilded Age. With men like J.P Morgan and John D. Rockefeller making lots of money rather quickly, it is hard to imagine that they did everything morally and did not crush others beneath them on their rise to the top. Silas tells the priest, Sewell, “I get to thinking it all over, and it seems to be I done wrong about Rogers in the first place; that the whole trouble came from that,” (Howells, p. 364). Silas finally realized that he had indeed done something wrong to Rogers in buying him out of the partnership and that the problems he encountered before he became bankrupt were related to this original transgression. The rise of Silas is the fall of his business, while rising morally and owning up to his wrongdoings in the end and choosing not to take the path to an unethical success.

Another topic of interest is the dinner party that the Coreys invite the Laphams to. Penelope decides not to go, knowing full and well that it was not her right environment and that she would not be comfortable under the scrutiny of the friends and family of the Coreys who had inherited their wealth. Silas was a self-made man and therefore was not a part of the social circle that the Coreys belonged to. Silas’ quick rise to wealth had given him the financial status of their group, but because he had not grown up in the upper class society, he did not know how to behave and act around them. In fact, he was unsure of a lot of social practices such as whether or not a man should wear gloves. This problem plagued him in the days before the dinner, and he went out and bought gloves anyway, but, “the question of his gloves was still unsettled … he had bought a pair, so as to be on the safe side,” (Howells, p. 185). Silas gets to the party only to find out that none of the other gentlemen had worn gloves. After initial introductions were made, if Silas had not understood a name, “he held the person’s hand, and, leaning urbanely forward, inquired, ‘What name?’,” (Howells, p. 189). He had learned this from the example of another “great man” so naturally he thought that it was the right thing to do having never been shown otherwise. Mrs. Lapham, on the other hand, had decided to be comfortable and safe and not concern herself too much with how the other women perceived her. Irene was seen as a thing of beauty, and had dressed stylishly for the event. Nanny Corey greeted Irene kindly and took a moment with her, “taking in her beauty and her style with a generous admiration which she could afford, for she was herself faultlessly dressed in the quiet taste of her city,” (Howells, p. 189). Irene may have been physically on par with the other guests, but that quote demonstrates that Irene was not as in tune with the ideals of city fashion and still held part of what she had been raised in, a country lifestyle. During dinner, rather than speaking up and asking for more water, Silas drinks wine heavily to quench his thirst and becomes drunk and speaks a little too much. Both Irene and Persis contribute to conversation lightly, but are unable to comment on subjects of higher culture such as new books that they had read. The Laphams do not have the historical pedigree that the Coreys do.

During the Gilded Age, there was such a great difference between new and old wealth; those who had inherited their fortunes did not feel that the newly rich should be allowed a place in their society and had to prove it if there were to have a spot amongst the elites. There was also a growing number of families that had obtained their wealth through success in the new industrial boom after the Civil War. This created a great problem for both sides since the newly rich wanted to belong to the elites, but the elites did not want their social circles interfered with by such people.

Many changes occurred during the Gilded Age and the previous order of things had been changed. Men were able to gain wealth quickly as they had never been able to do before. The upper class containing those that had inherited wealth were greatly upset by this and were not willing to accept new members into their social group even if they were part of the same economic group. Silas’ character shows the growing corruption and immorality of corporate business, and the growing alienation between business and its products.
#4. In Science II this fall one blackboard announced that U.S. history in the 19^th century is marked by “cultural solutions to political problems.” Consider this remark with specific reference to a political/social problem revealed in Little Men and discuss the cultural solution presented through the lives of at least two of the characters. If you are familiar with Little Women you may of course historicize the two fictions with reference to continuity and change. (If the blackboard remark seems provocative you may consider it with reference to another text in the course!)

Louisa May Alcott, like many other authors of her time, wrote about cultural problems such as poverty and homelessness. However, Alcott thought that it was better to address the problems on a more personal basis and fix the traits in a person that might lead him or her to be a part of the problem. In Alcott’s book, Little Men, the problems of poverty and homelessness are addressed in the cases of Dan and Nat. Rather than live on the streets and just barely get by, Jo and Fritz Bhaer teach the boys in their school about how to be a good person and a good citizen.

The problems of poverty and homelessness have been persistent ones. Before Nat came to Plumfield, he had been out on the streets, playing his fiddle for money with his father and another man, Nicolo. His father died and Nicolo took away his fiddle leaving him penniless, homeless, in bad health, and without caretakers. He tells Tommy, “it was horrid; so cold in the winter, and hot in the summer ... and I didn’t have enough to eat,” (Alcott, p. 14). Luckily for Nat, he seemed to have hidden away his true self from the beatings and took a natural liking to Mother Bhaer and Father Bhaer. Mrs. Bhaer, upon receiving the letter from Mr. Laurence regarding Nat, had resigned herself to taking in Nat, and after seeing him was positive that he was, “a lonely, sick boy who needed just what she loved to give, a home and motherly care,” (Alcott, p. 16). She takes on the task of solving the boy’s problem of being homeless and poor by taking him in and giving him the love and care that no laws could provide for him. By the law, he might have gone to a normal orphanage along with dozens of other boys where he most likely would not have been shown the motherly affection that Mrs. Bhaer could give to him. He could have even been put on an orphan train and sent out west to live with a family there and risk being placed with a loving family or used by a farmer as cheap labor. (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/orphan/) Although this phenomenon of the orphan train was contained mainly to New York City, and it can be assumed that Nat was fiddling around Boston, there is no clear mention in the book as to where Nat originally came from.

Nat’s talent for fiddling makes him popular amongst the boys immediately, disregarding his worn clothes and dirty exterior. Both Mr. and Mrs. Bhaer see plenty of potential in the meek, young boy. Mrs. Bhaer explains the conscience book to Nat on his first Sunday at Plumfield, telling him, “the boys know I want to help them, and they try to do their best for love of me and Father Bhaer,” (Alcott, p. 33). Nat tells Jo that he will indeed try to be good and that he desired to make her glad and proud instead of sorry and disappointed.

By the conclusion of the book, Nat has overcome many obstacles. He has applied himself to his studies despite the fact that they are not nearly as enjoyable as his violin lessons. On top of that, he has learned the value of money and satisfaction for a job well done. He had been allowed on numerous occasions to play for people out on picnics nearby for a quarter or two and had saved the money he made in hopes of purchasing a new violin but instead helped to buy Dan a microscope. The Bhaer’s have provided a complete education for him that makes him a well rounded young man and prepared him to become a man and more importantly, a citizen that will contribute positively to society. When Mr. Laurence sent Nat to Jo, the note he wrote said, “You cure his overtasked body, Fritz help his neglected mind, and when he is ready I’ll see if he is a genius or only a boy with a talent which may earn his bread for him,” (Alcott, p. 15). After the Thanksgiving Day performance that Nat gives, Jo mentions to Mr. Laurence that she thinks that Nat truly has genius, but Mr. Laurence replies,

“Too soon to say; talent he certainly has, and there is no doubt that the boy can soon earn his bread by the work he loves. Build him up for another year or so, and then I will take him off your hands, and launch him properly,” (Alcott, p. 325).

The conversation continues with Jo professing that her school, integrating girls and boys, is part of her success, explaining that her magic in affecting changes in the boys was she, “only loved them, and let them see it. Fritz did the rest,” (Alcott, p. 326). Rather than letting this boys become merely numbers in an orphanage, she fostered the spirit inside them individually rather than on a group basis.

Nat, wishing to extend the kindness shown to him, had brought a friend of his, Dan, to Plumfield, and asked Mrs. Bhaer if Dan could live there as well. Nat describes Dan as a boy who, “hasn’t got any folks and he’s poor,” just like Nat was when he came to Plumfield (Alcott, p. 82). Mrs. Bhaer reluctantly receives the boy who, at first glance, appears to be, “a bad specimen,” (Alcott, p. 82). However, despite this first bad impression, Jo decided that Dan was a case worth working with, and despite the fact that she lost her patience with him many times every day, she still felt that, “there was something good in the lad, after all; for he was kinder to animals than people...and best of all, little Ted was fond of him,” (Alcott, p. 86). Jo saw what a public institution might have missed, and nurtured him despite all his bad deeds. In fact, even Mr. Bhaer takes a liking to the boy, and after the incident involving bullfighting, Mr. Bhaer has a talk with Dan. After the talk and a firm handshake, Dan leaves, “more tamed by kindness than he would have been by the good whipping which Asia had strongly recommended,” (Alcott, p. 93). Rather than physically punishing the boy, Mr. Bhaer chose to let Dan know how disappointed he was and have Dan atone for his wrongs by taking care of Buttercup. Nevertheless, Dan cannot break his old habits and is forced to leave Plumfield to stay with Mr. Page and would be allowed to return if he proved himself worthy with Mr. Page.

Dan soon runs away from Mr. Page and is found later, returned to Plumfield asking for a second chance. Mrs. Bhaer is elated, getting a second chance to work with the one that got away, saying, “we have a hold on the boy’s heart, and I would no more send him away now than I would my own Rob,” (Alcott, p. 141). Indeed, the Bhaers did have a hold on Dan’s heart, for Alcott comments,

“Dan’s old distrust for these good people vanished forever, the soft spot in his heart was touched, and he felt an impetuous desire to prove himself worthy of the love and pity that was so patient and forgiving,” (Alcott, p. 142).

Dan showed remarked improvement in his behavior and truly tried to be good and please both Mother and Father Bhaer. He took an interest in animals and nature in general which was fostered by the opening of a little museum which Dan was given charge of.

At the end of the story, Mr. Hyde renews his interest in Dan, “if I go on my trip to South America ... I shall be tempted to ask you to lend him to me,” to which Mr. Bhaer agrees that he would serve Mr. Hyde faithfully (Alcott, p. 319). Mrs. Bhaer is also pleased with Dan’s improvement under her care, and agrees with her husband on the matter of Dan’s potential to be faithful, “Dan is one who can serve well if the wages are love and confidence,” (Alcott, p. 326). Rather than wages in money or good grades, in Mrs. Bhaer’s eyes, Dan’s real reward is a smile and a hug along with a pat on the back and compliments on a job well done. In any public school of the mid to late 1800s, this kind of reward for good deeds and improvement would have been completely unheard of, as grades were given out in number form, and still are today.

Mrs. Bhaer sums up her views on her cultural solution to the boys’ problems of poverty and homelessness, saying, “if men and women would only trust, understand, and help one another as my children do, what a capital place the world would be!” (Alcott, pp 327-328). Rather than making laws to enforce this benevolent and caring kind of behavior, Alcott believes that acts of kindness and compassion between humans can enact more change than any legislation ever could. Alcott had faith that any political problem can be solved with a cultural solution, by changing the way people think and rewarding them with love and kindness rather than forcing them to obey laws and punishing infractions.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alcott, Louisa May. Little Men. New York: New American Library, 1993.

Howells, William Dean. The Rise of Silas Lapham. New York: The Penguin Group, 1986.

“The American Experience, The Orphan Experience” http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/orphan/

<Accessed: 11 December 2001>